Initial response Close study Significance Informed reaction

Introductory activities

NOTE: This resource contains references to confronting historical events such as frontier violence and massacres. It is essential that you understand your class context so you can approach this unit of work sensitively and modify where appropriate.

Background to the text

During the 18th and 19th centuries, the British Empire transported convicts to Australia not only as punishment for committing a range of crimes, but also to alleviate poverty in England, while simultaneously establishing a British colony in the southern hemisphere. The National Museum of Australia provides further information about the rationale for transportation and the establishment of the colony of New South Wales.

At this time Australia was inhabited by First Nations peoples, who have lived on the continent for more than 60,000 years. Due to a lack of documentation, it has been difficult for historians to establish the number of people living in Australia before the British arrived. It has since been widely documented and acknowledged, however, that the colonisation of Australia by the British involved systemic attempts to eradicate Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples.

The establishment of the British colony in Australia and the subsequent conflict and bloodshed over land ownership is important background for studying Kate Grenville’s The Secret River, which is situated squarely during this period of history.

Settler narratives

In her 2016 Overland essay, Wiradjuri writer and academic Jeanine Leane describes how colonial literature reinforces settler narratives while ignoring Aboriginal histories and experiences. Before you begin teaching The Secret River, consider the following:

  • How might the study of this text reinforce Anglo-Australian cultural hegemony?
  • Are you using any texts by First Nations writers that convey Aboriginal and/or Torres Strait Islander histories and experiences?
  • What other texts can you use to complement your study of The Secret River? Can any of them be updated to include First Nations perspectives?
  • How do you teach students to think critically about the viewpoints presented in texts?

In the same essay, Leane recalls how ‘the literature of erasure’ impacted her as a student, but does not suggest removing these texts from classrooms. Rather, she sees them as important tools for interrogating colonial attitudes towards Aboriginal people at different points in time. In light of the accolades The Secret River has received, it is worth considering how it might be used to help audiences think critically about colonial values.

For more on the impact of colonial values in non-fiction texts, you can read about how Dja Dja Wurrung educator and researcher Dr Aleryk Fricker helped Northcote High School decolonise their library.

Cultural sensitivity

Extra care and sensitivity should be given to the teaching of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander experiences, especially as The Secret River depicts first contact from the European characters’ perspective. It is important that students understand the repercussions of this decision and how this is likely to affect the way they read the text.

The Secret River demands that both teacher and student are cognisant of the broader impacts of the themes and ideas being explored, and are prepared to handle the material with delicacy and compassion. The novel details some confronting episodes; the depictions of frontier violence and the brutal nature of colonisation may be challenging for some students. The end of Part Six (pp. 303–309) is particularly distressing and may not be suitable for all cohorts. Consider excusing students from conversations about these scenes if they do not wish to take part. It is also a good idea to provide a safe space that students can retreat to (with a supportive Aboriginal and/or Torres Strait Islander teacher or liaison officer) if necessary. Magabala Books’ guide to teaching Indigenous content is a good starting point for establishing an environment in which all students, especially those of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander descent, feel supported and safe to engage with the content of the text.

Activities that may help build cultural empathy and respect in your classroom include:

  • acknowledging the Traditional Custodians of the land on which your school is located
  • finding out what Country you are on and what languages are spoken in your local area
  • acknowledging that Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people are complex individuals with varied and diverse experiences
  • connecting with local First Nations groups and making an effort to understand their histories
  • avoiding making generalisations about Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples and their experiences
  • avoiding discussions about distressing content, and preparing other activities that students can undertake independently if they do not feel up to participating
  • establishing ground rules for communication in your classroom to ensure respectful discussion.

You will also need to lead your students safely into and out of the material being studied. Some strategies for doing so include:

  • creating a safe space where students feel comfortable to engage in the material
  • acknowledging that students may feel uncomfortable discussing certain topics
  • creating clear processes for students to inform the teacher if they are uncomfortable
  • focusing on the successes of individuals and communities (First Nations peoples and cultures continue to thrive despite centuries of attempted erasure)
  • demonstrating ways to respond with empathy
  • avoiding asking students to compare, evaluate, or relate to experiences that they are unfamiliar with and/or have not experienced themselves
  • addressing racist ideologies and/or attitudes swiftly.

Additional tips can be found in Reading Australia’s teaching resource for Ghost Bird by Lisa Fuller. See More Resources > Teaching Strategies and Resources for even more useful content from Cara Shipp, SBS Learn, and AIATSIS.

Criticism

The Secret River has been the subject of much criticism and debate over the years. Academic and writer Chris Conti mentions a couple of the arguments levelled against the book in his 2017 Sydney Review of Books essay. Unpack these with students:

  • How might a text about this period of history make people feel guilty? Which people might feel a sense of guilt?
  • What is whitewashing? What role does this play in Australia’s history?

Conti also reflects on the nature of historical fiction, and suggests that The Secret River is best read as a ‘critical appropriation of frontier mythology’ rather than a ‘true history’. Have students consider:

  • Who gets to tell the story of our shared history?
  • How do the roles of historians and novelists differ when it comes to telling/sharing history?
  • How might literary imaginings of Australia’s past be helpful and constructive, OR damaging and defamatory?

Personal response on reading the text

Title

The title of Grenville’s novel comes from a quote by Australian anthropologist W. E. H. Stanner, who has written about ‘a secret river of blood’ running through the nation’s history. This may be a difficult concept for students to grasp if they do not have a comprehensive understanding of colonialism and frontier violence in Australia. Nevertheless, you can ask them what they think Stanner’s quote may mean and what its implications are. You could couple this discussion with an analysis of this 2018 Conversation article, which focuses on Stanner’s argument that Australian history has been built on ‘a cult of forgetfulness’.

Dedication

Grenville has dedicated The Secret River to Aboriginal peoples ‘past, present and future’. Book dedications usually give thanks to a particular person (or persons), memory, or cause. Have students consider the significance of this dedication, and what it says about the centrality of First Nations peoples in Australia.

‘Strangers’ (pp. 1–6)

The Secret River begins with a short prologue titled ‘Strangers’. This could be read in class as a whole group prior to any individual reading. All the novel’s major themes and happenings are condensed within this short section. Ask students, either in class or for homework, to find quotes that relate to the following stages of William Thornhill’s journey in this chapter and write them in their journals:

  • transportation
  • life in prison
  • family life
  • the strangeness of the land (see note below)
  • fear and despair (see note below)
  • encounter with ‘the other’ (see note below)
  • anger
  • perception of threat

It may be helpful for students to look up any unfamiliar words/terms (e.g. convicts, transportation, First Fleet, emancipist, ticket of leave).

NOTE: The Australian landscape is often depicted as ‘wild’, ‘eerie’, or even ‘gothic’ in settler narratives. This fuels colonial misrepresentations of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples as equally ‘wild’ or ‘savage’. For an interesting discussion of these ideas, see this 2024 post on the State Library of Queensland’s blog.

‘London’ (pp. 7–71)

Part One focuses on Thornhill’s life in London, highlighting issues of poverty, the class system, criminality, capital punishment, and deportation. Why, in a book about Australia, is this important? Have students complete the London worksheet (PDF, 91KB) in pairs, small groups, or individually. Compare and discuss the responses in groups or as a class.

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Thornhill’s arrival

Part Two, ‘Sydney’, opens with Thornhill’s first impression of the place where he is to serve out his sentence (p. 75). Many of us can never see Australia for the first time because we were born here, but for people who have newly arrived in a country, the sight of it often leaves a profound impression. Ask students to discuss what it was like when they visited or arrived in an unfamiliar place, and what their initial thoughts and feelings were. Be mindful that some students may have recent migrant histories, and asking them to talk about how their family came to Australia may be upsetting. Students should NOT be called on to share these stories if they do not feel comfortable doing so.

Explore the concept of terra nullius with students. They may already be familiar with this term; if not, provide them with information that explains the concept and how it was disproved/overturned. When Thornhill arrives in Sydney, does what he sees support or challenge the early belief of terra nullius? How?

Adaptations

  • There are some excellent videos on the Gulp Fiction YouTube channel that provide a comprehensive understanding of the period in which The Secret River is set, both in England and the new colony.
  • There is a 2015 miniseries that would be a useful adjunct to the novel study. This is available on ABC iview OR accessible with a ClickView subscription.
  • Andrew Bovell’s 2013 stage adaptation gives voice to the Dharug people of the Hawkesbury region. The play gives more time to the clash of cultures and families from the novel, ensuring that both parties have equal speaking time and that the Dharug characters have their own names (rather than the names Thornhill gives them). It also includes Dharug language and features a Dharug woman as the narrator. You can read more about the play from Sydney Theatre Company (2016 or 2019 productions), The Conversation (2016), and The Theatre Times (2019).

NOTE: It is common to see variations in the spelling of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander langue or group names, which are rooted in oral traditions. AIATSIS has identified ‘Darug’ and ‘Daruk’ as alternative spellings of ‘Dharug’, which is the variant primarily used in this resource.

Outline of key elements of the text

Plot

Apart from a chronological jump backwards in Part One (from 1806 to 1777), the plot of The Secret River is linear and conventional. It follows the varying fortunes of William and Sarah ‘Sal’ Thornhill, from Will’s birth in London to his and Sal’s prospering in the newly established British colony of New South Wales. The book details many struggles and notable encounters, both with other settlers and with Aboriginal peoples within and beyond the colony. Detailed plot summaries are available from various study notes and teaching guides (e.g. LitCharts); these may be useful for students when organising their thinking about the text.

Characters

William Thornhill

Thornhill is the central protagonist of The Secret River. He was born into poverty at the bottom of a brutal class system in London. Having been spared the gallows and transported to New South Wales, he and his growing family make good by ‘taking up’ land and doing what is necessary to flourish. Thornhill is a loving husband and father, hardworking and ambitious. Grenville goes to great lengths to help the reader empathise with him, only to have him participate in horrendous violence for personal gain. By doing so, she forces readers – more than 200 years after the initial frontier conflicts – to question how they themselves would act in the same circumstances. It is uncomfortable for the reader to empathise with Thornhill, knowing the broader context of his situation. He is both a victim and an agent of British colonisation.

Smasher Sullivan

Smasher is an emancipist who has ‘taken up’ land on the Hawkesbury River. He is a brutal racist, capable of any sort of depravity. He initially appears to be a foil to Thornhill in both character and conduct, but the lines between protagonist and antagonist become blurred when Thornhill agrees to join the massacre at the end of Part Six. Smasher does not survive this event.

Thomas Blackwood

Blackwood is another emancipist, a solemn man of few words (p. 94). Like Thornhill, he was a waterman in his previous life (p. 49); when the two meet again, he has earned his pardon, procured a new boat, and is making money servicing the settlements on the Hawkesbury. Thornhill ends up buying the boat, enabling Blackwood to retire. With his philosophy of ‘give a little, take a little’, he is the true antithesis to Smasher and the other settlers along the river. His peaceful coexistence with the local Dharug people points to a starkly different relationship: one marked by respect and acceptance rather than subjugation.

Richard ‘Dick’ Thornhill

Thornhill and Sal’s second child, born in Cape Town en route to Sydney, is somewhat of an enigma to his parents. He is a gentle boy with a defiant streak, regularly sneaking off to play and learn alongside the Dharug children (p. 211). He is not even dissuaded when Thornhill beats him for his disobedience (p. 215–217). After the massacre, however, Dick turns his back on his father and goes to live with Blackwood. This decision cuts Thornhill to the quick, especially when people begin to mistake Dick for Blackwood’s son (p. 326).

Thornhill, Smasher, Blackwood, and Dick: a summary

Thinking about these four men, Smasher represents the extreme violence associated with invasion and colonisation while Blackwood and Dick represent an idealistic alternative, in which the arrival of settlers into an already inhabited land is managed cooperatively and without conflict. Thornhill represents a middle way: he does not relish violence, and attempts to settle affairs through trade or communication. When faced with an ultimatum, however – a choice between the land he wants and the wife he wants – he feels pressured to act.

Have students work in pairs or small groups to complete the quote attribution worksheet (PDF, 78KB). They will then work individually to write four character profiles, paying specific attention to the characters’ ideologies and how they translate into actions in the text.

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Sarah ‘Sal’ Thornhill

Thornhill’s childhood sweetheart Sal is a force, the strongest character in the book. Time and again she demonstrates the insight, intellect, and pragmatism she and her family need to face their current crisis. She is also funny, loving, clever, and bawdy. Students can complete the close reading worksheet (PDF, 52KB) to analyse her character.

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Mrs Herring

Mrs Herring is another strong woman and force for good. She has lived alone on the Hawkesbury since her husband’s death. While most of her neighbours live in fear of the local Dharug people, she does not. She tells Sal that she is happy to share what she has with them from time to time, as she already has what she needs to get by (p. 166). She has no fear because, unlike the other settlers, she recognises her obligation to share. This attitude aligns her more with Blackwood than the other settlers along the river.

Themes

The power of stories

Thornhill and Sal comfort each other by swapping stories, whether remembering the past or imagining the future (there is a good example on pp. 86–87). We all create narratives or stories about our lives, as individuals and as nations. The story of modern-day Australia is a contested one. Nigerian writer and activist Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie has spoken about ‘the danger of a single story’. What do students think Adichie means by this?

Consider the importance of storytelling in Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander cultures. In particular, oral histories help communities to establish relationships and responsibilities, transmit knowledge and teachings, and share experiences and memories. Are there any similarities between these practices and the way Thornhill and Sal use stories to sustain each other?

At the 2011 Melbourne Writers Festival, Grenville spoke about her family’s likely history of frontier violence (13:03–13:48), and her subsequent desire to tell that story truthfully (14:08–14:25, 50:55–51:08). Revisit Conti’s essay, particularly his suggestion that The Secret River does not aspire to ‘true history’ but rather provides a way to make sense of the past. Consider this in light of the controversy surrounding the novel, as well as Adichie’s ideas about dangerous stories.

  • What is the ‘danger’ in people viewing The Secret River as a completely true and historically accurate account of Australia’s colonial history?
  • What kinds of stories are dangerous when it comes to Australia’s history?
  • Why might a single voice or story be dangerous?

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Belonging and identity

On pp. 316–317, Grenville describes how Sal’s concept of ‘home’ differs from that of her children. They have no attachment to the London of their parents’ youth; Australia is the only home they have ever known, and it is the sights and sounds of the Hawkesbury that call to them in their dreams.

A sense of place is an overwhelming human need. This is why exile or displacement is such a wrench. Ask students to list 10 of the most important things they can think of that give them a sense of belonging and identity as an Australian. If you have students who were born elsewhere, or identify as belonging to another country, they can refer to the country of their choice. Have students compare their list with a partner, then invite them to share their ideas with the whole class if they are comfortable to do so.

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Crime and punishment

On p. 70, Thornhill learns that he will be transported to New South Wales to serve out his sentence for ‘the term of his Natural Life’.

There is a famous Australian novel with the same name*, written in 1874 by Marcus Clarke, that outlines the inhumane treatment of convicts by their guards. Thornhill is in a different position, as he is indentured to his wife before earning his freedom, but there is evidence in The Secret River of the brutality meted out to the chain gangs (pp. 83–84).

* Reading Australia resource available

Some points for discussion and reflection:

  • How was it that the British authorities had no qualms about exporting people to the other side of the world? What did they hope to achieve (for both countries)?
  • Were all the convicts dangerous criminals, or were some of them desperate people just trying to survive?
  • How does the late 18th century justice system compare to today? For example, if you were found guilty of stealing wood, what sort of punishment could you expect?
  • If appropriate, you could briefly discuss some of the issues around capital punishment. In what countries is it still carried out? When did Australia abandon this practice? What are the main arguments against the death penalty? Students could read about Thornhill’s friend Collarbone (pp. 49–52) as part of this discussion.

There was a great deal of lawlessness in the way the colonial settlers responded to perceived ‘outrages and depredations’ (p. 95). The University of Newcastle’s colonial frontier massacres map identifies instances of frontier violence spanning 1788–1930. Were settlers held accountable for these massacres? If so, to what extent? What message does it send when people are not punished for their crimes? Alternatively, what message does it send when people are punished disproportionately for minor offenses? Challenge students to think about the ripple effect of these kinds of decisions by law enforcement.

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Synthesising tasks

Responding to criticism

Ask students to imagine that they are Kate Grenville defending their right to create a fictionalised history of colonial settlement in Australia. Their audience is a group of commentators and/or politicians who feel strongly that novels like The Secret River have diminished the reputation of early settlers. This group is critical of the depiction of the settlers as greedy, racist, and cruel.

Students could respond in the form of a short speech, vlog, or Instagram Live video. Encourage them to think about the previous class discussions as they prepare their argument(s). You may need to provide excerpts/links to some of Grenville’s interviews to help them embody her voice and understand her position.

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Studying history through literature

Students will write a short magazine column about the benefits and/or drawbacks of learning history from literary texts, from a Year 11 or 12 student’s point of view. Using The Secret River as an example, they should demonstrate what students can learn about Australian history from fictional texts – OR, alternatively, what the silences in such texts can tell us about our past.

Students will need to give their column a title. Consider giving them a tangible audience by suggesting that they write for:

  • your school newsletter
  • a teen magazine
  • a journal for teachers or librarians
  • a local community newspaper

You could even challenge students to present their argument in a multimodal format. In this case, they could utilise a range of social media platforms to complete the task.

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The writer’s craft

Structure

Apart from the projection forward at the very start, the structure of The Secret River is linear and chronological, beginning with Thornhill’s poverty-stricken childhood in London and ending in his wealthy middle age on his property in New South Wales. The novel is divided into six parts bookended by a prologue (‘Strangers’) and an epilogue (‘Thornhill’s Place’). Although the six parts are long, they contain numerous scene/action changes that break the text into accessible bites. The narrative structure is traditional and can be easily plotted as:

introduction > rising action > climax > denouement

Setting

The key settings in the book are London, Sydney, the Hawkesbury River, and Thornhill’s Point (also on the Hawkesbury). Students could use Google Maps to see if the old streets and haunts of Thornhill and Sal’s dockside London still exist. If they are not familiar with the Greater Sydney region, they could also locate the Hawkesbury River, its proximity to Sydney, and its reaches. It is noteworthy that the Dharug National Park is located just north of the river.

Use of parallels and contrasts

The most striking juxtaposition in the novel is between peoples and cultures, when the white colonial settlers encounter and begin to dispossess the Dharug people of the Hawksbury River. Other contrasts include:

  • London and Sydney
  • England and Australia (terrain, climate, vegetation)
  • attitudes to the land, including ownership vs custodianship
  • farming methods
  • attitudes towards Aboriginal peoples

In addition to the obvious contrasts, there are also some parallels between the invaders and the people already living along the Hawkesbury. These are belatedly discovered by the Thornhills (see particularly pp. 287–288). They include the fact that both groups farmed (albeit in dissimilar ways), valued family life, and made efforts to maintain their homes.

Point of view and voice

The Secret River is narrated exclusively from Thornhill’s point of view, i.e. that of an individual colonial settler. It would be worthwhile to explore Grenville’s reasoning for this approach. She has written openly about it in Searching for the Secret River, a book about the process of writing her novel (‘The Aboriginal Characters’, pp. 210–218):

I’d written scenes in which Thornhill deals with his Aboriginal neighbours, but I knew they weren’t working. I’d never known anyone remotely like the Aboriginal characters I was describing, not even seen them from a distance. I was inventing them out of the only resources I had: stereotype, cliché and guesswork. I’d always known I wasn’t going to try to enter the consciousness of the Aboriginal characters. I didn’t know or understand enough, and felt I never would. … [But] there was an empty space in my own family story where the Aboriginal people belonged. The whole point of writing this story was to fill that space. More than that – to place them in the story so that they were as fully alive, as complex and as individual as the settlers. I didn’t want them to be shadowy figures on the edge of the action or stereotypes.

After spending some time in Kununurra in the Kimberley, Grenville made some changes to her draft of The Secret River:

I would get rid of all the Aboriginal dialogue. … Their inside story – their responses, their thoughts, their feelings – all that was for someone else to tell, someone who had the right to enter that world and the knowledge to do it properly. I might not be able to enter the Darug consciousness, but I could make it clear that there was one. To create a hollow in the book, a space of difference that would be more eloquent than any words I might invent to explain it. To let the reader know that a story was there to be told, but not try to tell it.

Have students discuss the importance of voice and representation. Although the Dharug point of view is not totally absent (in that the reader can make inferences based on the characters’ actions), there is power in having dialogue and being able to articulate thoughts, feelings, and emotions. What are the positives and negatives of writing this story exclusively from Thornhill’s point of view?

You might like to consider the difference between a character’s point of view and the implied point of view of the author. An author may set up an ironic triangle between themselves, the reader, and the character, whereby the author and reader know and see things that the character cannot. This is useful for analysing or interrogating the character’s attitudes and values. Thornhill’s limited point of view in the novel makes this ironic triangle possible.

As students come to rely on Thornhill’s narration, with occasional input from Sal, ask them to reflect on the picture being painted by his choice of words or the things he focuses on. Does this play into any of the historical stereotypes that white colonisers used to justify their actions?

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Language and style

Grenville’s overall writing style is traditional and straightforward, except for her use of italics rather than inverted commas to indicate direct speech.

Grammar and vocabulary within direct speech

Grammar and vocabulary are strongly linked to class. Grenville did extensive research to master the grammatical and lexical expression of working-class Londoners during the late 18th and early 19th centuries (the exchange between Thornhill and Sal on pp. 109–110 is a good example).

Language evolves over time. Our words (especially colloquial or slang words) and some of our punctuation may seem archaic or quaint in another 200 years.

Ask students to make a list of (school-appropriate) vocabulary, including colloquial words and slang, that has come into fashion and fallen out of usage within their own lifetime. They could also reflect on punctuation, such as the debate about full stops in text messages, and even how different generations use emojis.

Euphemisms

A euphemism is a mild term that substitutes for a harsher, more explicit, or more embarrassing one (e.g. asking to go to ‘the bathroom’ instead of ‘the toilet’). Two very contentious euphemisms in The Secret River are verb actions: to ‘take up’ (as in land) and to ‘disperse’ (as in peoples). Grenville has spoken about her own realisation that these terms contribute to an ‘airbrushed’ version of history.

Ask students what they think these two euphemisms (‘take up’ and ‘disperse’) really mean. Other euphemisms commonly used in discussions about Australian history are:

  • dispossessed
  • settled
  • explorers

Ask students if they can think of more apt words than these.

Figurative language

The Secret River abounds with metaphoric language, such as:

p. 4 Thornhill feels like a flea against the vast surface of the land
p. 10 God is as foreign to the young Thornhill as a fish
p. 80 Thornhill compares himself to a mole that spends its life underground
p. 143 Thornhill imagines tucking himself safely into a pocket, just as he tucks his hands away
p. 167 Blackwood’s face is as impassive as a stone
p. 194 The Dharug women show Thornhill as much interest as they would a fly
p. 194 A Dharug woman stands before Thornhill as firmly as a tree in the earth
p. 244 Thornhill likens the experience of watching the dance to reading a book he does not understand

Ask students to choose one of these examples, OR find their own from the novel, and unpack it to demonstrate how Grenville uses comparison to open up a world of visual imagery. Students might like to create their own metaphors and/or similes to describe a range of sights and sounds (e.g. train lines, waves on the beach, bushfires).

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Symbolism

There is one very profound symbol in The Secret River: the fish carved into the rock overlooking Thornhill’s Point. Thornhill discovers it in his first few weeks on the Hawkesbury (pp. 154–155), and it remains largely ignored until the epilogue (p. 316).

Invite students to read the relevant paragraphs in ‘Thornhill’s Place’ and comment on the symbolism of the carved fish in pairs, small groups, or a whole class discussion.

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Text and meaning

Relations between First Nations peoples and non-Indigenous Australians

The interactions between these two groups is the primary concern of Grenville’s novel. Although the reader does not hear from the Dharug characters (see The Writer’s Craft > Point of View and Voice), Grenville’s aim for The Secret River was to redress the ‘great Australian silence’: another term coined by Stanner to refer not just to a failure of recognition, but active ignorance and forgetfulness of past atrocities.

Exposing students to the troubled history between colonial settlers and First Nations peoples is important for understanding events within and beyond the novel. It is also important as students look to a future that demands recognition of First Nations peoples as the Traditional (and enduring) Custodians of the lands and waters we now inhabit. There are likely to be students in your class who are cognisant of the struggles and resilience of First Nations peoples, and who will feel strongly about working towards an equitable and just future.

There have been many significant developments since the period in which the novel is set that have paved the way for better relations between First Nations peoples and non-Indigenous Australians. Consider allowing time for students to explore some of these events/milestones and reflect on their impact:

In light of their growing understanding of the history of relations between First Nations peoples and non-Indigenous Australians, have students consider how The Secret River might redress or respond to the ‘great Australian silence’. They might be able to share their thoughts on whether they think the novel has done this successfully.

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In his 2019 book Australia Day, Wiradjuri and Kamilaroi journalist Stan Grant suggests that – while cataclysmic – the arrival of the British was not a decisive end for his ancestors. He goes on to talk about how First Nations peoples have often been framed as passive victims rather than active participants in the history of the nation, and reminds readers of their endurance and resilience in the days of first contact and beyond (pp. 56–57). If students are capable, you might like to discuss how paternalism and deficit discourse have influenced (and continue to influence) the way the nation perceives Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people.

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The importance of land

Land rights have always been a burning issue in Australia. Remind students that the doctrine of terra nullius was only officially overturned in 1992, when the High Court of Australia recognised that First Nations peoples had been dispossessed of their lands in the Mabo Case. The Native Title Act 1993 (Cth) was passed the following year.

Show students the AIATSIS Map of Indigenous Australia to demonstrate the multiplicity of nations that existed prior to the arrival of Europeans. Explain the difference between ‘country’ and ‘Country’, and help students to understand the importance of the latter for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples. The following resources may be useful:

For the early convicts and free settlers who came to Australia from England, land possession was everything. Explain to students the poverty that many convicts experienced in their birth country; increased opportunities for transit and employment via assisted migration; and the mythology of Australia as a land of endless possibilities. Also consider:

  • the notion of the dispossessed (i.e. convicts) doing the dispossessing, and getting a chance at everything they had always been denied
  • how a block of land and farm represented security, status, a sense of place, a new start, and a means of becoming rich (or at least getting out of poverty)
  • different attitudes to land ownership – the British saw the land as theirs for the taking, to own and exploit as they saw fit

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The problem with Thornhill’s Point is that it is already occupied when Thornhill and his family arrive. He recognises this relatively early in the novel, as he contemplates the origins of the carved fish (p. 155).

Discuss with students the difference between ‘owning’ and ‘occupying’ land. How might such a difference in understanding have contributed to the violent clashes between First Nations peoples and colonial settlers?

Yuin, Bunurong, and Tasmanian writer Bruce Pascoe published his seminal Dark Emu* in 2014, and the ensuing furore has continued to this day. The book refutes the long-held idea that Aboriginal peoples were nomadic hunter-gatherers. Rather, Pascoe argues that they fished, farmed, baked, and constructed dwellings in settled villages (there is a useful summary in this 2019 Inside Story essay). Much of his evidence comes from the diaries of early explorers and colonists. Indeed, while there are several references in The Secret River to the Dharug people’s ‘roaming ways’, Thornhill also has the realisation that they are ‘no less’ farmers than the white settlers who have staked their claim along the Hawkesbury (p. 229).

* Reading Australia resource available

The power of language

Before invasion, more than 250 First Languages (and around 600–800 dialects) were spoken around Australia. In 2022, according to Common Ground, only 120 First Languages were still being spoken. Today there are many language revitalisation projects underway, such as My Grandmother’s Lingo, the 50 Words Project, and the Gambay First Languages Map.

If early colonial settlers wanted to possess the land, they certainly did not want to possess the local languages. In fact, as recently as the 1970s, Aboriginal languages were banned in schools. In the stage adaptation of The Secret River the Dharug characters speak their own language. In this way, their actions and intentions are not filtered through a white colonial lens. They converse with as much familiarity and ease as the Thornhills, standing on their own land.

Ask students:

  • What power is there in being understood?
  • How might it feel to be surrounded by people speaking a language that you can’t understand?
  • Think about slang or inside terms you and your friends have. How does it feel to share a connection with them through words and language?
  • How might The Secret River be a different novel if First Languages were included in the story?

Depending on students’ capability, you could also discuss how language shapes the way we see and interact with the world and how, when a language is lost, so too is an entire way of seeing and being in the world. This 2020 Conversation article raises some interesting points for consideration.

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Colonialism

Make sure students understand the concept of colonialism. You might start with a dictionary definition, then expand on it by looking at the etymology of the word itself. There are other interesting discussions available from York University’s UnLeading Project (Canada) and the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (United States).

Then ask students to read this 2016 IndigenousX article by the organisation’s founder and CEO, Gamilaraay man Luke Pearson. This is a powerful piece of writing. Discuss it as a class, drawing attention to:

  • the role of the media in ‘green-lighting’ racist tirades – can students think of any recent examples of this (see note below)?
  • the comparison between the suggestion to ‘get over it’ and the well-known commemorative phrase, ‘Lest We Forget’
  • the names of the Aboriginal warriors mentioned in the article – do students recognise them?
  • Pearson’s comment that Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people are omitted from discussions about issues that directly relate to them
  • the quotes by Arrernte and Kalkadoon activist Dr Charles Perkins (these come from a 1984 address to the Rotary Club of Melbourne)
  • Pearson’s statement on the impossibility of ‘getting over’ something that continues to affect people’s lives

NOTE: Be mindful that discussing recent racist tirades could be inflammatory or hurtful. Exercise caution and modify/skip this exercise if necessary.

The Uluru Statement from the Heart

In 2017, more than 250 Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander delegates of the National Constitutional Convention signed the Uluru Statement from the Heart. The Uluru Statement is an invitation to non-Indigenous Australians to join First Nations peoples in bringing about genuine and substantive reform and recognition. If appropriate, invite students to read the Uluru Statement and answer the following questions:

  • How long have Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples lived on the continent of Australia?
  • In your own words, explain the meaning of the term ‘sovereignty’ as understood by the writers of this document.
  • How long have non-Indigenous people been in Australia?
  • What are the writers of this document calling for?

NOTE: In 2023, Australians voted in a referendum on whether to change the Constitution to establish a body called the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Voice. Although the referendum did not pass, 40% of the nation – more than six million people – voted ‘Yes’. On the one hand, this is a clear indication that momentum for change is growing (albeit slowly, and with a long way to go). On the other hand, the outcome speaks – at least in part – to the ongoing enforcement of colonial control over Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples. Depending on your students’ maturity level, they may benefit from a discussion of the ‘No’ vote; parallels between the settlers in Grenville’s novel and opponents of the Uluru Statement; and the persistence of colonial behaviours and attitudes. This, however, would need to be approached with extreme caution and supervised closely by the teacher. If you are NOT confident leading such a discussion, OR if there are Aboriginal and/or Torres Strait Islander students in your class, then you should avoid it altogether.

Silence and truth

There is a ‘space of silence’ in Thornhill and Sal’s relationship following the massacre. Although they attempt to move on from that night, the unspoken truth lingers like a spectre or shadow in their marriage for many years (pp. 324–325).

The silence between Thornhill and Sal is a microcosm of the ‘great Australian silence’ discussed earlier in this section. Truth-telling – and indeed, truth-listening – is uncomfortable. Some people prefer to avoid difficult conversations altogether rather than acknowledge the unpleasant reality. Grenville describes the silence that descends on the Hawkesbury at the end of Part Six (p. 309); in many ways, this continues to hang over Australia today.

Award-winning Arrernte and Kalkadoon filmmaker Rachel Perkins delivered a series of Boyer Lectures in 2019 entitled ‘The End of Silence’. These are well worth investigation. Students can read an edited extract of the first lecture on ABC News (also accessible to watch with a ClickView subscription), or listen to all three on ABC listen:

Meaning in context

It should be clear from the preceding material that context is essential to understanding The Secret River. This is a relatively recent novel about Australia’s past that continues to resonate into our shared future. It has had an enormous cultural impact, received many accolades, and bore the brunt of much criticism in the years since it was first published.

Synthesising task

A letter from Dick

Revisit the character of Dick Thornhill, his relationship with the Dharug people on the Hawkesbury, and his eventual estrangement from his father (Initial Response > Outline of Key Elements of the Text > Characters).

Ask students to imagine that 20 years have passed since the events of The Secret River. Dick has not spoken to his father in that time, but he has recently learned that Thornhill is on his deathbed.

Write a letter from Dick to Thornhill in which he explains why he has kept his distance for so long. Think about what might have happened over the last 20 years, and how Dick’s understanding of events may have evolved in that time.

  • Does he ask his father for forgiveness? Why or why not?
  • Is he still angry? Why or why not?
  • What motivates him to write to his father?
  • How does he hope the letter is received?

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Ways of reading the text

Many aspects of The Secret River are contentious and have drawn criticism. Grenville is a novelist, not a historian; she wrote a fictional story based on a huge amount of historical research.

Who has the right to tell the story of arrival in a country that has been occupied for at least 60,000 years (perhaps even longer)? How can non-Indigenous authors write truthfully about Australia’s past without appropriating or erasing First Nations voices? Are original documents and written texts the only legitimate historical sources? Where do oral histories fit in? These are all important questions for students to consider.

The following information and perspectives are presented as a means of navigating the complex issues raised by The Secret River.

Historiography

Historiography is the study of how history is written, including the selection and interpretation of sources and the application of research methodologies.

Grenville published The Secret River in 2005 to a storm of controversy. Among her critics were the traditionalists: people who objected to any slights upon the early colonial settlers, preferring to view them as courageous heroes who faced overwhelming odds to carve out a new country. Notable historians in this camp include Geoffrey Blainey and Keith Windschuttle.

In 1993 Blainey coined the term ‘black armband’ to describe overtly critical accounts of Australia’s colonial history; this was taken up by John Howard, who served as Prime Minister from 1996–2007. Proponents argued that black armband history belittled past achievements, encouraged guilt and shame, impeded rational thought, and fostered political correctness. They saw no need to apologise for past atrocities because the current generation of Australians were not responsible for perpetrating them. On the other side of this debate were historians like Manning Clark and Henry Reynolds, and politicians like Paul Keating and Kevin Rudd (Howard’s predecessor and successor respectively). They added their voices to the call for a revision of colonial history – which had mainly been written by white men – to include terms such as ‘invasion’, ‘massacres’, ‘warfare’, and ‘genocide’.

Grenville has also faced backlash from more sympathetic historians who objected to what they saw as the ‘fictionalisation’ of history. A 2006 Age article conveys Inga Clendinnen’s view of the novel as ‘dramatic imagination’ and presentist (bringing present-day ideas into depictions of the past). In the same article, Mark McKenna expresses his concern with ‘fictive history’ and the treatment of fiction writers as ‘historical authorities’. Grenville maintains that such criticism is based on out-of-context comments; she has stated that The Secret River is NOT a history but a work of fiction based on reality.

The right to tell Australia’s story has been (and is still being) fought over by historians, politicians, and novelists. For this teaching resource, Grenville can have the last word: in her view, it is necessary to shine a light on the dark parts of our history in order to move forward as a nation.

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Gendered reading

A gendered reading considers the way in which characters conform to (or subvert) the traditional gender stereotypes of the society depicted – in this case, colonial settlers of the early 19th century. There were probably many strong women among the convicts, emancipists, and settlers; they would have to have been tough to cope with the harshness of everyday life in the colony. But Sal’s fortitude goes beyond physical strength. Time and again we see her advising, counselling, and even admonishing her husband. Without her intervention, Thornhill would have been hanged. Both Sal and Mrs Herring demonstrate intellectual and psychological prowess, arguably greater than that of the men in the novel.

Ask students to locate an example of Sal OR Mrs Herring’s moral/intellectual strength. They could share their findings in pairs, small groups, or a whole class discussion.

Then ask students to consider the depictions of the Dharug women in Part Four (pp. 193–195, 199–202, 221–222, 226). What traits, strengths, and skills do they display? How does their exchange with Sal differ from the white men’s interactions with their Dharug neighbours?

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Ecocritical reading

Ecocriticism is concerned with the relationship between literature and the physical environment. The Secret River is infused with subtle comments about the destructive practices of colonial settlers on the one hand, and the custodianship displayed by the Dharug people on the other. Compare the beautiful (unsettled) land that Thornhill observes on the Hawkesbury (p. 111), and the lush camp where the Dharug people reside (p. 193), with the bleak description of Smasher’s Arm (pp. 230–231).

Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples are among the world’s oldest astronomers, farmers, engineers, and scientists. Ecological and environmental knowledge has been transmitted and developed over many generations. This includes fire management practices that reduce the risk of bushfires and maintain animal and insect habitats.

The Black Summer of 2019–2020 saw catastrophic bushfires engulf large parts of New South Wales, Victoria, South Australia, and Queensland. The Final Report of the NSW Bushfire Inquiry recommended cultural burning not only as a form of hazard reduction, but as an important cultural practice. What do students know about cultural burning? How can it help mitigate the impact of bushfires?

In addition to unprecedented bushfires, Australia is grappling with a host of other concerns:

Ask students to make a list of current environmental problems in Australia. Follow up with a class discussion of these issues and any solutions students came across in their research.

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Marxist reading

Karl Marx was an influential philosopher, economist, and journalist whose Communist Manifesto predicts the overthrow of capitalism and the instatement of a classless society. Marxist criticism views literature as a reflection of social and economic conditions, and is concerned with the intersection of culture and power.

Ask students to find definitions of communism and capitalism. Then ask them to read the paragraph that runs over pp. 229–230 in The Secret River, in which Thornhill reflects on the absence of social class among the Dharug people (see note below). Discuss the following:

  • What is meant by Thornhill’s observation that, among the Dharug people, ‘everyone’ is gentry?
  • Is there a class of ‘gentry’ in Australia currently?
    • If yes, who are they?
    • If no, why? Does this mean everyone is equal in our society?
  • What is the prevalent economic system in Australia?
  • In your view, what would be the best system for running a country? Why?

NOTE: While there may not be a class system, there are still several important social structuring systems in Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander cultures. You can find more information at the following websites:

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Postcolonial reading

Postcolonial theory is concerned with the past, present, and ongoing effects of colonialism. In Australia, colonisation is ongoing because the coloniser has not departed (Wiradyuri writer Anita Heiss has explored this at length in ‘Post-Colonial – NOT!’). Additionally, The Secret River cannot be considered postcolonial literature in the generally understood sense of the term, as Grenville does not belong to a group that has been subjugated by a colonial power (postcolonial writing often involves the celebration and reclamation of cultural identity). The novel does, however, share a concern with how colonisation has impacted (and continues to impact) the First Peoples of a country.

Ask students to consider whether The Secret River is a deliberately postcolonial text. Provide the following prompts to help them organise their thoughts and encourage them to draw specifically on key moments from the text:

  • How does the characterisation of Aboriginal peoples differ between this text and other canonical Australian texts?
  • Have a range of perspectives and experiences been included?
  • How are the characters’ identities shaped by their heritage and culture?
  • How are intercultural relationships treated?
  • How are colonial oppression and racism represented?
  • Does the text reinforce or undermine a Eurocentric view of Australia/the world?

Comparison with other texts

There are many texts – both fiction and non-fiction – written by Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander authors that deal with first contact and ongoing relations between First Nations and colonial settler societies. Many of these are listed on Reading Australia (see their catalogue of First Nations texts for the classroom) and available from publishers, particularly leading Indigenous publishing house Magabala Books. They include (but are not limited to):

* Reading Australia resource available

There is also a poignant film depicting violence and racism in the Northern Territory in the 1920s: Sweet Country (2017), directed by award-winning Kaytetye filmmaker Warwick Thornton. Be aware that Sweet Country contains references to sexual assault; you should consider whether this is appropriate for your class.

First Nations literature has expanded enormously, dismantling the myths, prejudices, and antiquated colonial views of the 18th, 19th, and 20th centuries (and those that persist today) in the process. For their own interest, students may wish to research some contemporary Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander writers. The following list is by no means exhaustive (and is in addition to those authors mentioned above):

Evelyn Araluen Tony Birch Claire G. Coleman Jane Harrison
Anita Heiss Ambelin Kwaymullina Jeanine Leane Gary Lonesborough
Sue McPherson Oodgeroo Noonuccal Kirli Saunders Jared Thomas

There are, of course, texts by non-Indigenous writers that deal with relations between First Nations peoples and white Australians. They vary in appropriateness, and many – even those that would have once been considered sympathetic – would now be considered paternalistic and/or offensive. As Kamilaroi, Scottish, and English writer/editor Darby Jones outlines in this 2024 IndigenousX article, the best antidote to colonial (mis)representations in literature is to read the diverse ‘counter-stories’ offered up by Aboriginal (and Torres Strait Islander) writers.

Note that The Secret River is the first instalment in a historical trilogy. It was followed by The Lieutenant in 2008 (featuring a new protagonist who arrives with the First Fleet) and Sarah Thornhill in 2011 (focusing on Thornhill and Sal’s youngest daughter), both of which explore similar themes to their predecessor.

The Secret River also spawned a memoir in 2006 (about the writing of the novel), a stage adaptation in 2013, and a two-part miniseries in 2015. Refer to the Initial Response section for previous discussions of these last two (Personal Response on Reading the Text > Adaptations).

Finally, in 2025 Grenville released Unsettled: A Journey Through Time and Place. This book – which documents the author’s pilgrimage to places from her family stories – revisits many of the central themes from The Secret River. Unlike the novel, however, Unsettled is a work of non-fiction that blends the personal and historical. Students could explore Black Inc.’s Q&A with Grenville, in which she shares valuable insights about both titles.

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Evaluation of the text as representative of Australian culture

Grenville’s novel struck a chord in Australia. It inspired some, ignited debate among others, and became one of the most popular (and awarded) texts of its time. Enough has been written/spoken about the origins of modern Australia for most people to be aware of the violence that took place. Until recently, however, this was hardly mentioned outside of schools, where learning about this chapter of history is mandatory. It was only in 2022 that the Australian War Memorial announced plans to expand recognition of the Frontier Wars. Many people still find it too confronting to acknowledge the massacres, dispossession, and successive attempts at cultural erasure. Yet, as is evidenced by ongoing annual discussions about 26 January, the past is still with us and is unlikely to disappear.

Rich assessment task (receptive and productive modes)

Ask students to choose ONE of the theories discussed in this section and prepare a defence of The Secret River (and literature in general) as a vital means of understanding our past and present and providing a hopeful vision for the future.

Students need to convince their audience of the wealth of understanding/depth of knowledge that can be attained from reading The Secret River. They should demonstrate how the novel speaks to theories of economics, aspects of feminism, or the roots of the conservation movement. Alternatively, they could highlight how Grenville has (in her own way) contributed to conversations about reconciliation and truth-telling. Another option would be to explore the history wars and their relevance (or not) today.

This task could be delivered as:

  • a written exposition
  • a persuasive argument
  • a partisan speech

Students should make reference to The Secret River, including appropriate quotes from the novel and other relevant sources.

The following notes may be a good starting point for reflecting on different readings and related issues/developments in Australia:

Reading Relevant considerations
Gendered
Ecocritical
Marxist
Postcolonial
  • any of the milestones listed under Close Study > Text and Meaning > Relations Between First Nations Peoples and Non-Indigenous Australians
  • reconciliation and truth-telling

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Synthesising core ideas

Safely exiting the text

After exploring the key ideas and themes of The Secret River, it is important to bring students safely out of the text. This means allowing time and space to unpack important concepts and respond to any questions, and providing a space for continued dialogue if students wish to engage further with or about the material. The Secret River covers several culturally sensitive and challenging themes, so it is important that students do not feel confused or further confronted by the text and the issues it raises.

Below are some strategies to help bring students safely out of the text:

  • Allow time to debrief after class if students want to talk more
  • Use exit cards or short surveys to ascertain their comfort levels
  • Use private journaling to help students respond to and process difficult themes
  • Model an appropriate response to the text
  • Follow up with answers to any questions
  • Provide practical ways that students can respond to/get involved with issues they feel passionately about
  • Help students make connections between their study of The Secret River and how they can support certain movements and ideas (especially justice, equity, and respect for First Nations peoples)
  • If possible, direct Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students to your school’s Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander unit/liaison officer for further support

Rich assessment tasks (productive and receptive modes)

Task 1: personal reflection

Have students undertake a personal reflection on what they have learned about the impact of colonisation (past and present) from reading The Secret River, as well as from class discussions and their own research.

The following prompts may help students get started:

  • What have you learned about Australia’s colonial history from Grenville’s novel?
  • How did learning about the experiences of First Nations people and/or convicts impact you?
  • Were there characters that served particular purposes in the text? Do you think some offered a different perspective or point of view?
  • What have you learned about First Nations histories?
  • What ideas did you have about Australian values before reading The Secret River? Were any of these challenged?
  • Have you been able to take anything you have learned from this unit of work into your everyday life?

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Task 2: telling the truth

Consider the fictionalised history laid out by Grenville and how it relates to ongoing discussions about truth-telling in Australia. Ask students to respond to the follow questions:

  • How do the events of The Secret River challenge or endorse the views of contemporary Australian politicians, commentators, etc.?
  • What kinds of issues does the text bring to the fore?
  • In what ways does The Secret River encourage readers to engage with truth-telling and/or truth-listening?

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Task 3: the crossroads of literature and history

By the end of this unit of work, students should be able to explain the impacts of The Secret River (both positive and negative) as it sits at the crossroads of literature and history. Working in pairs, they will prepare an interview/formal conversation about what they have come to understand about the text, both in terms of its stylistic features AND its engagement with the history of colonial settlement in Australia.

Students will need to:

  • draft and edit a script
  • utilise examples from The Secret River, as well as Grenville’s commentary about her work and excerpts from other relevant interviews, articles, etc. to illustrate their arguments
  • ensure that each partner has a chance to make their voice and opinion heard

Students will record their interview/conversation in either audio (i.e. a podcast) OR video format (i.e. for YouTube). You can modify this task by asking students to focus on specific concepts from your class discussions and how they are represented throughout the novel.

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